Biodiversity
A Guide through the Mire
E
verybody knows about biodiversity now. They know it is about
genes and species and habitats and ecosystems and is another way of saying the
variety of life. They know that in essence it is not just about variety, but
about the variety of native species in their natural ranges. But what do we
actually have to do to ensure that biodiversity is conserved, and what does
it mean in terms of conservation management? And how does "biodiversity"
relate to SSSIs
,
SACs
and SPAs?
And BAPs,
HAPs
and SAPs?
There was an excellent guide in British Wildlife by Tony Juniper in 1994 (Vol
6 no. 2) but perhaps an update is needed now.
Various pieces of legislation over the past 20 years or so
have contributed to the current working documents on biodiversity, described later.
Here is a list, dull I'm afraid, of the main national and international items
of legislation and government policy which are of relevance in our day-to-day
- or at least month-to-month - life. Incidentally, most are effectively and clearly
summarised at the beginning of Planning
Policy Guidance : Nature Conservation which is worth obtaining.
Requires the conservation of internationally important
wetlands. Their legally protected status is as SSSIs, protected by the Wildlife
and Countryside Act.
Requires the protection of endangered and vulnerable species
of fauna and flora in Europe, and their habitats. Appendices list species for
which exploitation and other factors should be controlled. Legal implementation
for the relatively few UK species is by the Wildlife
and Countryside Act
and the EU Habitats Directive (see below).
Requires the protection of migratory animals, from the
Arctic to Africa. As for the Bern Convention, legal implementation has to date
been through the Wildlife
and Countryside Act,
EU Council Directive on Wild Birds and EU Habitats Directive (see below).
This is designed to protect wild birds, and to provide
sufficient diversity of habitats for all species so as to maintain populations
at an ecologically sound level. It lists birds of special conservation concern
requiring special conservation measures, and includes selection of areas most
suitable for them to be designated as Special
Protection Areas
(SPAs). Furthermore it lists birds for which hunting and sale and other activities
are allowed, but otherwise affords a strong degree of protection to all birds
("reverse listing" formula). Legal implementation is by three mechanisms.
The European Commission can investigate complaints of breach of the Directive.
Secondly this Directive had much influence on the Wildlife
and Countryside Act
and many of its requirements are included in that legislation. Thirdly, SPAs
have a limited amount of stronger protection than SSSIs, as provided by the
Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations, 1994 (see below). Special
Areas of Conservation (SACs) (see below) share this protection. SPAs and SACs
together form a network of protected sites across the EU called "Natura
2000".
This is the main piece of legislation for the UK and for
implementing preceding EU conventions. It protects both species and sites (SSSIs
and ASSIs) of UK importance.
Complements the EU Directive on the Conservation of Wild
Birds and covers species other than birds. Habitats and species of "community
interest" are identified, according to certain criteria, and these must
be maintained at "favourable conservation status", again as specified
by particular criteria. The mechanism for protection is through designation
of Special Areas of Conservation
(SACs), both for habitats and for certain species. There are also measures for
the protection of certain species, including dormouse, which were not previously
protected by other legislation. The legal instrument for implementing the Directive
in the UK is the Conservation
(Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations, 1992. This provides:
(a) for the protection of species listed in the Habitats
Directive, and
(b) for the conservation of habitats, namely the SACs
designated under the Habitats Directive and the SPAs
designated under the Birds Directive.
As noted, this protection could be somewhat stronger than that
afforded to SSSIs,
particularly as regards existing planning permissions. Conservation bodies have
pointed out loopholes, however, in both species and habitat protection.
As is well known, the central mechanism resulted from the
"Earth Summit" in Rio de Janeiro and is The UN Convention of Biological
Diversity, 1992. This aims, among other things, to stem losses of biodiversity
at the global level by protection and sustainable use of biological resources.
The UK's initiatives have been as follows : The UK Biodiversity
Action Plan, 1994, produced by the Government and stating important new goals,
eg. "to conserve and enhance biological diversity in the UK..."
and "the conservation of global biodiversity should be an integral
part of Government programmes, policy and action." Shadowing this
plan and produced just before it was the voluntary bodies' Biodiversity Challenge,
1993. This emphasised target setting and formulae for action plans, among other
topics. Both these have been considered by a mixed steering group, with the
production of
Biodiversity: The UK Steering Group Report. Volume 1: Meeting the Rio Challenge,
and Vol 2: Action Plans. 19953. The government fully supported this (as described
in the Government Response to the Steering Group Report, May 1996) and thus
both volumes are essential reading in order to appreciate the many actions that
biodiversity conservation may involve. Targets and proposals designed to be
appropriate up until 2010 are given. Only a flavour can be given here, and new
factors may emerge as experience grows, but some important inclusions are as
follows:
• Identification of key species (endemic and
globally threatened; less than 25% of the world's population in the UK; more
than 25% decline in the last 25 years; in the UK found in fewer than 15 10km2s;
species listed in the EU Birds and Habitats Directives, or Bern or Bonn conventions
or in the Wildlife and
Countryside Act ). This results in a list, acknowledged to be provisional
and incomplete, of 1250 species. It is the fullest list of species of importance
in the UK that has been published as a single list, and will be of use and
value in assessing importance from now on. It contains some species which
may have been regarded as common, such as the song thrush, bullfinch
and brown hare. Of these 1250 species, 116 have been short listed for "early
action", and for each of these a Species
Action Plan (SAP) has been prepared by the statutory
agencies, steering group members or others. A further 300 species (approx.)
will have Species Action Plans prepared within 3 years. The voluntary bodies
or other organisations are to "champion" individual SAPs; for instance
the National Trust
is championing the plan for the netted carpet moth and the Wildlife
Trusts
the plan for dormouse. The rest of the near-1000 species will be monitored,
where possible.
• Broad habitat types (37 in total) have been defined,
to help inform national and local policy and action, using terminology that
is readily understandable, such as broad-leaved and yew woodland, improved
grassland, unimproved neutral grassland, acid grassland and grazing marsh.
• Key habitats have been defined : those for which
the UK has international obligations; habitats at risk, e.g. those which are
rare, or which have had a high rate of decline in the last 20 years; areas
which may be 'functionally critical' for organisms inhabiting wider areas
(e.g. sea grass beds for spawning fish) and areas important for key species.
Although not stated, most of the habitats from the EU Habitats Directive are
included here under a broader habitat type, e.g.:
Key habitat from biodiversity
document |
EU Habitats Directive
Annex 1 types |
| Lowland heath |
Northern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix
Dry heaths (all sub-types)Southern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix
and E. ciliaris |
However, some of the EU Directive types are not listed as
key habitats, e.g. oligotrophic lakes and species-rich Nardus grasslands.
Key habitats which feature in the Biodiversity document but not in the Habitats
Directive include Ancient Hedgerows, lowland wood pastures and parks, and
cereal field margins.
Some broad habitat types have a particularly high number
of the long-list (1250) species, e.g. broad-leaved woodland with 232 spp,
standing open water with 136, natural rock exposure and caves (135), calcareous
grassland (112), maritime cliff and slope (91), etc. Some key habitats have
large numbers too. However the report states that "actions to conserve
UK species will need to be taken in more than just a few key habitats",
which is part of the welcome reference to the wider countryside in this document.
• Habitat
Action Plans (HAPs) are being and have been prepared by the statutory
agencies and steering group. Those that have been prepared, e.g. for lowland
heaths and for chalk rivers, have already been useful as a summary of the
status of the habitat, the most important issues affecting it and the targets
and requirements. National HAPs will be championed by the statutory agencies.
• Monitoring needs are being considered, and the feasibility
of a UK Biodiversity Database (UKBD), with a network of co-operating organisations.
• Local Biodiversity
Action Plans (BAPs), including local Habitat Action Plans, are being
produced. There is a UK Advisory Group to recommend standards and good practice
in their preparation. A main function of Local BAPs is to ensure that national
targets in the national Habitat and Species Action Plans are taken forward
and met. They will also provide the biodiversity element of Agenda 21, and
will promote species and habitats characteristic of local areas. The report
states that "targets should be included which reflect the values of local
people". Widespread "ownership" of the plans is seen as essential,
and a range of organisations and individuals is involved in their preparation,
at a range of scales, from regional to county or National
Park.
• Guidance is given in Vol 1 of the Biodiversity report
on preparing local BAPs. This includes identifying Prime Biodiversity Areas
(PBAs) where there should be "proactive programmes aimed not only at
managing the sites, but also increasing the level of biodiversity of intervening
land through habitat management or enhancement, or by means of habitat re-creation".
Also, importantly, in the wider countryside there should be many initiatives,
including restoration of features, action to link landscape and conservation
features, and action to protect species which are not adequately catered for
in the PBAs.
• The existing national Species Action Plans and Habitat
Action Plans have been analysed and tables have been produced of the main
threats to biodiversity in the UK at present, such as overgrazing in the uplands
and falling water tables.
The Biodiversity report has no legal status, except as provided
for species already protected by the other mechanisms mentioned earlier.
Text from an original article by Katherine A. Hearn, Adviser
on Nature Conservation, National Trust. Written in 1997.
Note: some aspects of this article have been overtaken
by developments since then. Other parts of this article also appear on certain
pages referred to in this document. Reproduced by kind permission.
References.
1. Planning Policy Guidance : Nature Conservation.
PPG 9. Department of the Environment, October 1994. Published by HMSO, price
£8.50 and obtainable by phone from 020 7-873-9090.
2. The Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations
1994. Statutory Instrument No. 2716. Published by HMSO, price £8.70 and
obtainable by phone as above.
3. Biodiversity : The UK Steering Group Report. 1995. Vol 1:
Meeting the Rio Challenge, price £26. Vol 2: Action Plans, price £30.
Published by HMSO and obtainable by phone as above.
4. The current status of UK birds which are of conservation
significance has recently been re-appraised by the RSPB
in the light of ongoing research and monitoring : see Birds of Conservation
Concern, a very useful free leaflet published by the RSPB
on behalf of other organisations, including the National
Trust.
Obtain from RSPB,
The Lodge, Sandy, Beds SG19 2DL. More detail is given in the RSPB's annual Conservation
Review for 1996.
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